Industrial and Space Biotechnology (White)

Everything from Environmental to Space Biotechnology has a place in the "White" category of biotechnology. Industry is the driving force behind the world economy. Raw materials are harvested and put to use, not all of which are recyclable. The role of biotechnology in industry is to invent materials that are renewable, versatile, safe, and effective. 

Biofuel

  • Biofuels

Biofuels are a candidate for creating Renewable Energy. Electric vehicles, currently the most common use of renewable fuel, have low horsepower which prevents them from carrying heavy loads. Electricity has limited production or storage, making long-distance travel impractical. Biofuels can be used for long-distance shipment and travel of any kind, including aviation.

First- and Second-Generation biofuels use Green (Plant) Biotechnology. Starch or sugar harvested from food crops is first-generation. Using plant oils or extracting lignocellulose from cell walls of non-food plants is considered second-generation. Algal Biofuels, which are third-generation, are created from algal oils using Blue (Marine) Biotechnology.

Fourth-generation biofuel ingredients are excreted from genetically modified organisms (Ambaye). Organisms modified to create fourth-generation biofuels can range from plants to microorganisms. The strongest fourth-generation biofuels involve liquid oxygen. These are used in Space Biotechnology described below.

There are numerous advantages and disadvantages to each of the biofuel sources above. Scientists are perfecting a fuel that is reliable, clean, and easy to mass-produce.

Microbial Fuel Cells

  • Bioelectricity

The generation and utilization of bioelectricity is another energy source being studied and explored. This is done through microbial fuel cells that create electricity from biodegradable waste.

Some bacteria or fungi that produce bioelectricity are also used in Gray (Environmental) Biotechnology. Through bioremediation, we can clean pollutants while simultaneously producing electricity.

In a fungus battery, the microorganism forms a biofilm only a few cells thick on the anode (electron source). When the biofilm is in contact with organic waste it produces carbon dioxide, protons, and electrons. The protons travel through a proton exchange membrane (PEM) to the cathode (electron receiver). The electrons travel around the PEM to provide electricity where needed. At the cathode, oxygen is converted to water from the excess protons and electrons. (Sarma)

Polymers-Based Materials

  • Polymers/Smart Materials

Cells often use patterned molecular structures in their organs known as polymers. These structures can be as large as necessary, perform complex molecular functions, and have other valuable features.

Polymers are popular with Red (Medical) Biotechnology because they provide convenient drug delivery, can be used safely as sealants and glues in medical devices, and have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and/or antioxidant properties.

Another advantage to polymer devices is the variety of potential triggers to activate them. These triggers are:

  • Diffusion: Using the polymer to activate the drug when it reaches the desired location
  • Solvent-Activated: Polymers that grow or change properties when exposed to specific substances
  • Chemically Controlled/Biodegradable: Using substances to break down the polymer
  • Externally Triggered: Conditions such as temperature or pH change the properties of the polymer

(Liechty)

The ability of living organisms to adapt and recover from environmental challenges inspired scientists to develop "Smart Materials". These polymers are able to react to various stimuli by changing their properties. After the stimulus is over, the smart materials will revert back to their original form.

Scientists build smart materials with polymer subunits that are rod or disc shaped. Using alignment techniques to create the desired form, the units are molecularly bonded into a polymer.

Some smart materials are created to change shape. This can mean bending, shrinking, or expanding in response to a stimulus. Since the atoms in a polymer are all covalently bonded, changing the shape of the polymer results from rearranging the molecular bonds.

Humidity, temperature, or light can be used as stimuli for a shape-changing material. Hydrogen bonds in the molecular structure will break and reform depending on the polarity of the environment (humidity or pH). These and other molecular structures are responsive to surrounding energy levels (temperature or light).

Polymers are also able to change colors. If the polymer has a helical structure, then changing humidity or pH can either unwind or tighten the structure. For example, the helices will unwind as they absorb water. They then reflect longer wavelengths of light resulting in a red shift. If the humidity is kept constant, then temperature may be a secondary stimulus. At high temperatures the material will release the water and tighten, resulting in a blue shift.

The ability to make nanoporous smart material "open" or "close" is useful for both scientific and industrial purposes. Solutions with high pH, ions, or specific chemicals will break external hydrogen bonds, exposing the internal structure. Using light to trigger molecular changes is also possible.

This type of smart material is usually designed to host a specific "guest" molecule once it is opened. When the stimulus is removed, the guest molecule is released.

The ability to casually break and reform molecular bonds grants the opportunity to create self-healing materials. If a smart material is scratched or broken, then providing the stimulus may allow it to recover. This approach can also be used to recycle smart materials into new shapes whenever necessary. (Lugger)

Self-healing materials provide an invaluable contribution to making Space Biotechnology safer.

Space Biotechnology

Extended space exploration is only possible with the help of space biotechnology. Major areas of concern are: 

  • Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS) and 
  • In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU). 

BLSS are needed to provide an ongoing supply of oxygen, food, and water. The spaceships require ISRU as a renewable source of fuel and other resources.

BLSS requires a continual supply of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and oxygen and is vital to space travel. This includes a circular food economy. The growth of ready-to-eat crops such as grains and vegetables can produce sufficient oxygen exchange but takes too much time, space, and effort to sustain on a large scale. These food sources also lack protein content.

Microorganisms are being considered as alternative consumables. Some cyanobacteria are photosynthetic and can help maintain healthy oxygen levels. As a food source the microorganisms would be extremely protein rich but low in fats or calories.

The complexity and danger of space travel can't be overstated. In a closed system over an extended period, any imbalance can accumulate and become fatal.

Space Biofuel

  • Biofuels

To explore space on extended missions, we must have a renewable fuel source. Fourth-generation biofuels involving liquid oxygen (LOX) are popular candidates.

Currently, the fuel of choice by NASA is LOX/liquid hydrogen. The combination of oxygen and hydrogen to produce energy releases water to be recycled for usage elsewhere. Liquid hydrogen provides the strongest thrust of the fourth-generation biofuels. To remain liquid, this fuel must be stored at -250 degrees Celsius (-418 degrees Fahrenheit) and is difficult to produce on a large scale.

Fuel from liquid ethanol is the easiest to produce of the LOX biofuels. Microbes such as yeast or bacteria use fermentation to consume sugar and convert it into ethanol. The biofuel reaction produces carbon dioxide and water. LOX/ethanol fuel has the weakest thrust of the three liquid oxygen fuels. Ethanol has a boiling point of 78 degrees Celsius (178 degrees Fahrenheit), meaning it can be stored at room temperature. Different challenges arise due to ethanol's volatility and easy contamination by water in the air.

LOX/methane biofuel can be produced using photosynthetic algae, though production is inconveniently slow. Its combustion releases carbon dioxide and water. LOX/methane biofuel must be stored at -173 degrees Celsius (-279 degrees Fahrenheit). Overall, LOX/methane fuel holds the middle position in thrust, ease of storage, and ease of production compared to the other LOX fuels. (Keller)

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Ambaye, T. G., Vaccari, M., Bonilla-Petriciolet, A., Prasad, S., van Hullebusch, E. D., & Rtimi, S. (2021). Emerging technologies for biofuel production: A critical review on recent progress, challenges and perspectives. Journal of environmental Management, 290, 112627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112627

Keller, R. J., Porter, W., Goli, K., Rosenthal, R., Butler, N., & Jones, J. A. (2021). Biologically-Based and Physiochemical Life Support and In Situ Resource Utilization for Exploration of the Solar System-Reviewing the Current State and Defining Future Development Needs. LIFE (Basel, Switzerland), 11(8), 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/life11080844

Liechty, W. B., Kryscio, D. R., Slaughter, B. V., & Peppas, N. A. (2010). Polymers for drug delivery systems. Annual review of chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, 1, 149–173. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-073009-100847

Lugger S., Houben, S., Foelen, Y., Debije, M. G., Schenning, A., & Mulder, D. J. (2022). Hydrogen-Bonded Supramolecular Liquid Crystal Polymers: Smart Materials with Stimuli-Responsive, Self-Healing, and Recyclable Properties. Chemical reviews, 122(5), 4946–4975. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00330

Sarma, H., Bhattacharyya, P. N., Jadhav, D. A., Pawar, P., Thakare, M., Pandit, S., Mathuriya, A. S., & Prasad, R. (2021). Fungal-mediated electrochemical system: Prospects, applications and challenges. Current research in microbial sciences, 2, 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crmicr.2021.100041